DORIS ADAMS BROGAN -- NEWS STORIES FROM HER EARLY LIFE

INTRODUCTION

In  researching our Family History, I have discovered that in years past, news stories traced many events in our lives.  My cousin DORIS ADAMS BROGAN's teen and early adult years from 1935 to 1945 were vividly traced in articles in several local newspapers, including the weekly paper in her hometown of Coushatta; in the biweekly paper in the college town of Natchitoches; and in the daily papers of the nearest city, Shreveport.  

These news stories about Doris reveal a young woman of exceptional ability, intense focus and dedication.  She had high aspirations which led to notable achievements.  She was  intelligent, beautiful, popular, a natural leader, gifted in public speaking, writing, math, and science.  I wanted to share the Doris who is revealed in these articles with her children, grandchildren, and great grandchildren.

Technical Details -- Editing scanned newspaper files from archives for publication in this Blog has been hampered by some technical challenges.  I have done the best I can with current technologies.  If I find some articles cannot be read, I will transcribe the content of the articles.  I have retained the source information for each article so anyone who wishes to do so can access the original scanned article or the original archived copy.

DORIS ADAMS -- 1935-1945

In Her Senior Year, Doris was Elected President of the Home Economics Club at Coushatta High School

That same Fall of 1935, Doris helped organize a Science Club at CHS, and was Elected Treasurer

As an Historical Note, Girls were not usually elected president of organizations with both male and female members during this Era.  Girls were given the jobs that required work but not nessarily "up front" recognition.  They were usually secretaries and/or treasurers.

At Christmas that year, Doris was among 10 players in the Dramatics Club Presentation

As an Historical Note, Plays were often presented as "fund raisers" for other school activities.  In these three articles, we can begin to see the dimensions of Doris's varied interests and abilities.

Doris wins statewide Essay Contest.  

Doris is part of group organizing the first school Newspaper at CHS

As Graduation approached, Doris was announced as the Valedictorian with a perfect 4.0

As an Historical note, in this era, there were no advanced placement or college credit courses that offered additional grade points to boost the GPA.  A Perfect 4.0 meant that Doris made an A in every single course she took over her 4 years in high school.  She never let down in a single class from PE to Chemistry and Trigonometry.  In this picture I see a resemblance to her sister Sara Glenn Adams.

Doris is Valedictorian And Dr. Fredericks will Speak at CHS Graduation

Note From family History:  Doris and Dr. Fredericks are both descendants of Mathias Frederick, who came to Louisiana in 1720 as one of the settlers of the "German Coast" of Louisiana.  As one of the earliest settlers, the Fredericks are among the First Families of Louisiana.  It is not known if Doris and Dr. Fredericks were aware of this connection, but he was definitely impressed with this brilliant young woman. 

Photo of Doris with Her Graduating Class at CHS

Two Years later as a Sophomore at Northwestern Normal College (to become Northwestern State University) Doris is named as one of Eleven Demon Sweethearts

Historical Note -- his honor has traditionally been a fusion of popularity and beauty.

As a Recipient of a T.H. Harris Scholarship, Doris is among the Louisiana College Students who, as holders of these prestigious scholarships, will meet.

Historical Note -- T. H. Harris was a 20th Century leader in Education in Louisiana.  The scholarships awarded in his name were among the most prestigious, and valuable in the state.  Only the best students received these scholarships, and it was presumed that they would become leaders in the state.  I am uncertain of the purpose of the statewide meeting of students holding theses scholarships.

Doris is Among Students Representing the NC at Louisiana State Fair

Historical Note:  It is difficult today to understand how important the annual State Fair was as a showcase for what was happening in the state.  While agriculture was front and center at the Fair; Education was not far behind.  High Schools and Universities participated an many events, providing the public with insights into their activities and achievements.

Doris is Among 13 Co-eds Named as Members of the Purple Jackets, THE Honorary Organization at NC

Historical Note:  At NC (and NSU), the Purple Jackets was the ultimate honor for women students.  You had to dot all the I's and cross all the t's and never make a misstep to be voted in by members and faculty advisors.  I didn't make it, but I was proud to see that Doris did.

Doris was Elected President of the Louisiana Home Economics Clubs

Historical Note:  Today the term Home Economics has virtually vanished.  The studies and majors have been renamed or abandoned.  In the days when it flourished in colleges and universities, there was a distinct fear that majors in Home Ec. would be looked down on by other disciplines.  Consequently the professors over compensated and created a very difficult curriculum.  Many Home Ec. majors had minors in chemistry because of their nutrition and food studies; they had strong backgrounds in math because of their "economics" studies. Their work in child development gave them minors in human development and psychology.  Only very smart, hardworking students succeeded in Home Economics.  Doris was apparently among the best and clearly a leader among these students.  In this picture I see a distinct resemblance to her Mother, my dear Aunt Lizzie.

Doris is named President of the College Home Economics Clubs

I don't know if this is another announcement of the same information in article above, or if there were two different organizations that Doris led, one for both high schools and college clubs and one only for college clubs.

Doris Graduates With Honors from Normal College

I don't think this is a Surprise to Anyone.

Doris Volunteers to Serve in the US Navy on Dec. 17, 1942

Historical Note:  Women were not drafted in WWII, and in the beginning the areas in which they were allowed to serve were very limited.  However, as more men were needed for front-line duties, women were given more and more options and opportunities.  Doris was among those chosen to more upward in the military services of this nation.

Doris Receives Fast Advancement in WAVES

Doris Promoted to Naval Officer Rank

Historical Note:  Men with college degrees were routinely given officer rank on enlistment.  However, women with equal education had to earn officer rank through military achievement.  Doris did.

My Newspaper Searches centered on Louisiana, although I briefly tried California.  I am sure there are more articles about Doris, and as I find these I will update this Blog.  If you find articles, please share so they can be added here.

MAMA JACK'S BED

MAMA JACK’S BED

Stories About Mama Jack

Written At the Request of Tara Lemoine (Her Great Granddaughter)

When I remember Mama Jack I remember how she smiled with her eyes every time she looked at me.  Some people smile with their lips, but not their eyes;   some smile with lips and eyes.  Mama Jack was the only person I’ve ever known who always smiled with her eyes.  My cousin Henry and I often talked about how much she loved her ten grandchildren.  She was the only grandparent Henry ever knew, and in his heart her memory burned bright.  These stories were written because his children and grandchildren wanted to know more about the woman Henry (and the other nine of us) called Mama Jack.  I begin with one of my earliest memories, etched in sight, sound, smell, and touch.  With all my senses I can recall Mama Jack’s bed.

Mama Jack’s big bed occupied the place of honor in the back bedroom.  It was placed in a corner with just room enough for the person sleeping on the right to edge in between bed and wall.  When I was very young, the room was heated by a wood stove, which was replaced by a space heater fueled by butane gas from a big tank that sat just outside the house.  On either side of the stove/heater were two wooden rocking chairs, the one on the right for Mama Jack and the one on the left for Daddy Jack.  

I have no memory of ever spending the night when Daddy Jack was home; and few memories of summer nights.  I’ve given this some thought and believe that I spent nights with Mama Jack when Daddy Jack, and probably my Daddy and Clint, were off hunting or fishing.  Mama Jack didn’t like being alone at night, so I had the privilege of keeping her company.

There were three doors opening into the bedroom.  One, located across from the foot of the bed, opened onto the back porch, and permitted cross ventilation that cooled the room in the heat of summer.  The second opened into the kitchen, and made it convenient for Mama Jack to tend to things there.  The third opened into the middle bedroom. There were 4 windows, two south-facing along the right side the bed and two west -facing on the wall to the left of the head of the bed.  On the left of the bed where a night stand would be placed today, stood Mama Jack’s sewing machine.  

When I was little, there was no bathroom in the house, and no running water.      During the day, we all went to the outhouse, which was located far from the well, and out of sight behind the smokehouse.  When a bathroom was added to the house, it was built between the front bedroom and the middle bedroom, (where a large linen and storage closet was originally located).  It was a long, cold distance from bed to bathroom for a small child, so Mama Jack st kept a “slop jar” (another word for chamber pot) for me.  It was actually a very pretty pot, with a tight fitting lid to contain any odors.  Every morning Mama Jack emptied the slop jar before I was awake.

During the day, Mama Jack’s bedroom was the center of social activity.  Only the kitchen competed as a gathering place (and of course the dining room during meals).  The contrast made the nights in the bedroom seem even quieter.  During those long winter evenings, I would sit in Mama Jack’s lap or in Daddy Jack’s rocking chair, and we would listen to Jack Benny, or Red Skeleton, or Ozzie and Harriet.  My favorite was Baby Snooks, and Mama Jack liked the Southern Gospel Hour.

Before time to go to bed, Mama Jack would warm two bricks on the stove or heater.  When the bricks were warm, she wrapped them in flannel cloths and placed them between the sheets on each side of the bed.  While she heated the bricks, she also heated a kettle of water, which she poured into a metal pan shaped like a basin.  With this warm water and a soft flannel wash cloth, and homemade lye soap she gave me a quick bath and changed me into my pajamas.  Then she turned back my side of the big bed.  In cold weather the sheets were flannel, and in warmer weather, they were cotton.  In either case, they had the fresh scent of linens dried in the sun and wind.  The cotton sheets were always smooth because Mama Jack ironed her sheets.  The heated brick made the bed warm and welcoming.

Climbing into that big bed wasn’t easy.  It was made of iron, and stood well off the floor.  I could (and did) crawl under it.  From the underside I could look up and see the iron side rails.  These rails supported strong boards that ran crosswise to hold up the springs and mattresses.  On top of the boards were iron springs.  Keeping the dust out of those springs was not easy, but somehow Mama Jack managed.  Above the iron springs, was Mama Jack’s cotton mattress.  

The only thing “store-bought” about that cotton mattress was the ticking (the cloth that contained the cotton).  Mama Jack made the mattress by sewing the ticking and then stuffing it with raw cotton raised on the farm.  The top mattress, placed above the cotton mattress was the distinctive feature of Mama Jack’s bed.  Like the cotton mattress, it was made by Mama Jack, but it was stuffed, not with cotton, but with down (the soft under-feathers of waterfowl).  When flipped and fluffed as Mama Jack did every morning, the feather mattress was 8 to 10 inches high.  When compressed under the weight of a body, it was about 4-5 inches thick.  It was like sleeping in a cloud.

I’m not certain of the source of the down that filled Mama Jack’s mattress and pillows.  My maternal grandmother kept a flock of geese as a source of feathers (and to drive off snakes and other critters).  Many farmers, like my Uncle Edward, kept a flock of geese to help pluck the grass growing in the cotton, but I don’t remember Mama Jack ever having more than one or two geese.  I suspect that the soft feathers came from the breasts of ducks that Daddy Jack and her sons killed each winter.  

To climb into that bed, I pulled myself up, and standing on the iron side rails, I would fall softly into that huge pile of feathers.  That dive was an utterly delightful, and mostly forbidden joy.  During the day, the bed was sacrosanct.  After Mama Jack carefully made it each morning, that feather mattress was never to be touched by a hand (much less a body).  NO ONE sat on Mama Jack’s bed.  NO ONE climbed on Mama Jack’s bed.  NO ONE deposited any object on Mama Jack’s bed.  NO ONE even left an indented hand print on Mama Jack’s bed.  Only in the case of severe illness or approaching death, can I imagine someone reclining on Mama Jack’s bed during day-light hours.  

Sinking deep into the feathers, surrounded by the brick-warmed, soft flannel sheets that smelled of sunshine, I would rest my head on a pillow made just like the feather mattress, and pull the quilts up around me.  Mama Jack had an everyday bed spread, that she “spread” over the bed each morning to protect her precious quilts from dust or other contamination.  She also had a fancy spread for special occasions and family gatherings.  The spread was removed from the bed and carefully folded before bedtime, and replaced each morning when the bed was made.

The covers that I pulled up to keep warm in my feather nest were Mama Jack’s handmade quilts.  There were always at least two and sometimes three.  The bottom quilt was always cotton, and often old.  Old quilts are softer and more cuddly than new.  Mama Jack made many cotton quilts.  They covered all her beds, and were stored in the top of the linen closet (even after it became a bathroom).  The top quilt was usually a wool quilt.  Wool quilts, made from scraps of wool fabric, were far less common than cotton quilts, but held heat better.  They were also a bit scratchy.  

Today you see quilts made with large pieces cut from bolts of cloth with carefully chosen and coordinated colors.  Mama Jack’s quilts were made of small pieces, often all that could be salvaged from a well-worn garment.  The colors were often muted because worn-out clothes were washed many times before being turned into scraps for quilts.  The liners were purchased at the store, and were the most expensive part of the quilt.  In later years, Mama Jack made more colorful quilts as wedding gifts, and these demonstrated her art better than the scrap quilts.  

Mama Jack had a lot to do before joining me in the warm feather bed.  She always checked out the kitchen, setting everything in place for next morning’s coffee and breakfast.  Then she would stand by the warm fire and change into her flannel night gown.  I never understood how she did it, but she would pull the gown on over her clothes, and with her head through the neck, but her arms inside the gown, she would remove her day clothes without showing a bit of skin or naked body.  When her clothes were removed, she thrust her arms through the sleeves of the gown, and then carefully folded and hung up her clothes.  

There was no closet, and she hung her dress in a chifforobe, (sometimes called a wardrobe or an armoire ).  The chifforobe was the only large piece of furniture in the bedroom, and stood in the northwest corner of the room.  After closets were added to the house, the chifforobe was replaced with a dresser.

My Grandmother never wore anything other than a dress.  Over her dress, she usually wore an apron.  Sunday was the only day she didn’t wear an apron. She also always wore stockings (even in summer heat). Her everyday stockings were cotton, but on Sunday she wore nylon.   She dressed up on Sunday, and wore a hat and gloves.  Everyone in her little church called her, “Aunt Ida,” and one Mother’s day, she was declared the “official Mother of Union Hall Baptist Church.”

After putting her clothes away Mama Jack removed her shoes and stockings, and put these away.  I was always fascinated by Mama Jack’s feet, because I had never seen feet like hers.  Today, I can look at my own feet, and see exactly the deformation that so enthralled me as a child.  I inherited Mama Jack’s  “bunions,” a condition in which our big toes gradually begin to draw sideways toward the little toe (pulled by shortening tendons).  As we age the condition worsens and the joint below the big toe protrudes.  Mama Jack’s soft everyday shoes  became distorted into the shape of her feet.  She kept the shoes out of sight.

I often wish I had inherited Mama Jack’s height instead of her feet.  She was a tall woman, like her mother and her daughters.  At least she was a tall  woman for her era.  Taking after her Dutch and German ancestors, she stood 5’8 to 5’10’.  As she aged, her spine contracted and she grew shorter.  I remember her remarking that her three sons had competed to see which one could marry the smallest wife (Clint won).  She was right, Myrtis Lee, Paige, and Edith were all small women, dwarfed by their husbands’ larger Mother and sisters.

After removing her shoes and stockings, Mama Jack would carefully wash her feet in the warm water remaining in the basin after my “bath.”  Then, sitting in her big rocking chair, Mama Jack would let down her hair.  She always wore her long hair in braids, which she kept pinned up on her head.  She would unpin the long braids, which dropped over her shoulders.  Then she would unbraid each braid, releasing her long hair.  In her youth, her hair was a jet black, like her daughters Lorena, Cecile, and Sarah.  Only Iola had light hair.  However, just like her daughters, silver infiltrated the dark hair in their 30’s.  

        During this period of my life, Mama Jack was in her 50’s, and her hair was silver and black (salt and pepper some call it).  Some of her lighter hair was a pale gold rather than silver, creating a tri-color effect.  Her hair was beautiful and spread out over her shoulders.  The long tresses were wavy from the plaits.  With a brush, she brushed it (100 strokes, I guess, because I couldn’t count that high).  She would rock and brush, and when she was satisfied, she carefully plaited  her hair leaving the long braids loose on her shoulders.  In the morning, she would pin them up again, to repeat the cycle.

Her hair ritual finished, Mama Jack cleaned her teeth.  When I was older, she used a toothbrush, but when I was young she brushed her teeth with a twig cut from a tree, then scraped and stripped to form a tuff of stiff fibers for teeth cleaning.  Usually she used black gum twigs, but she also used sweet gum, sumac, or dog wood.  She used soda for toothpaste.  When remembering this, I googled twig tooth brushes, only to learn that you can order them from Amazon.  Apparently this “natural” way is popular again.  

After her toilette, Mama Jack took up her Bible and settled into her rocker for her evening scripture reading.  Mama Jack didn’t have a fancy “Bible study” plan, she simply started at Genesis 1:1, and read each night until her reached Revelation 22:21.  Then she began again with Genesis.  Her approach so impressed me, that in my late teens I imitated her.  I made it through my bible twice before backsliding.  I have Mama Jack’s last Bible.  Like all her others, it is well-worn.

After reading her Bible, Mama Jack would take off her glasses, carefully clean and put them away, and kneel down on her side of the bed to pray.  Sometimes I tried to kneel with her, but my knees began to ache or I got too cold to stay on that floor.  One thing I never doubted, Mama Jack’s prayers were powerful.  As a child, I felt comforted and protected because I knew she prayed for me.  Years later, I realized that nothing really bad happened to our family until after Mama Jack’s prayers were silenced by death.  Then we had some hard times.

        Mama Jack usually wanted to go to sleep as soon as we were both in bed, but sometimes I could get her to tell a story.  I could often get her to talk by asking her about the history of one of the blocks in a quilt.  Each block seemed attached to a garment that held memories.  This strip was from Daddy Jack’s vest, that he wore to meetings of The Woodsmen of the World. This square was from the dress Iola wore to school on her first day.  And tears welled up in he eyes when she identified a block from the gown that her first child wore before his death of SIDS.

Among my treasures are a wool quilt Mama Jack made; one of the pillows she stuffed with down; and her rocking chair that stood by the fire.  I should give them to someone for whom they would have meaning, but I have been slow to part with the memories they invoke.

Mama Jack’s bedroom never seemed totally dark.  She didn’t pull the shades down before going to bed (after all we were way out in the country with no close neighbors, and a very noisy dog). The moonlight and starlight brightened the sky and the room.  In the semi darkness, I still remember Mama Jack’s sleeping features in silhouette.  

Her skin was beautiful.  Even in her 80’s she had only smile lines, in an otherwise smooth face.  She may have had a bit of vanity about her skin, or  she just didn’t want the sun to darken it.   She never used fancy creams, but she always wore a bonnet with a stiff brim sticking out front and a long tail in the back to protect her face and neck.   She made her own bonnets, stiffening the brims by quilting.  Her bonnets often matched her aprons (which she also made).  I’m not sure if that was a fashion statement or because she could get a better buy on a quantity of fabric.

Sometimes in those nights in Mama Jack's bed I would open my eyes and she would be looking down at me, those smiling eyes radiating love.  I loved my Mama Jack for many reasons, but mostly because I always knew how much she loved me.

MY LAST LECTURE ON STUTTERING

DRAFT

STUTTERING:

A Personal Perspective

Frances J. Freeman, Ph.D. 

For Graduate Stuttering Seminar at UT Dallas, Callier Center

Oct. 17, 2022

THIS THESIS IS LABELED “DRAFT”’ because I need assistance in completing and editing it.  I am asking every student in the class to add one or more questions (or suggestions) for content or organization.  Any others who stumble on this Blog are similarly invited to contribute to the completion.  I’ve tried to write this three times before, and each time it began at a different place, but circled  to the same conclusions.  The story seems to be a circle.  Let me know what you think and where you think I should begin and end.  Further, I need feedback to understand what I should and should not include or discuss more in depth.

OBJECTIVES FOR THIS LECTURE

1. To persuade some of you that stuttering is a fascinating disorder; that people who stutter deserve treatment from knowledgable clinicians; and to motivate some of you to continue to learn more about the disorder and the people it affects.
2. To seduce one or two of you into spending your careers focused on stuttering either through research or clinical work or both.
3. To find one or more of you who are seeking a research topic, possibly for a thesis or dissertation.  In the course of preparing this lecture, I stumbled into a relatively unexplored area just primed for some straight-forward research, and I’m looking for someone to go with it..

OBJECTIVES FOR THERAPY

1. TO HELP THE CLIENT TO ACHIEVE HIS POTENTIAL AND LIVE A FULL (FULFILLED) LIFE.

2. TO HELP THE CLIENT ACHIEVE HIS POTENTIAL AS AN EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATOR, WHO CAN ENJOY COMMUNICATIVE INTERACTIONS WITH OTHERS.

3. TO EMPOWER THE CLIENT WITH KNOWLEDGE & SKILLS IN COMMUNICATION.

4. TO HELP THE CLIENT OVERCOME UNREALISTIC NEGATIVE SELF-PERCEPTIONS AND BUILD A HEALTHY EGO, HOPEFULLY WITH EMPATHY FOR OTHERS.

PRIMARY THEORETICAL CONSIDERATION

Everything called STUTTERING is NOT the Same

When my Grandmother was a girl, “FEVER” was a disease — a specific diagnosis with prescribed treatment.  Now we know that “fever” is a symptom of many different diseases.  In this analogy, the forms of disfluency we group together and call “stuttering" are not a single disorder.  “Dysfluency,” and its chronic form, which we call “stuttering,” do not constitute a unitary (homogeneous) disorder.   Rather, what we have called stuttering, is a symptom (or observable behavior) characteristic of a number of different underlying problems, which alone or in combination, can lead to disruptions in a complex cognative-language-speech formulation and production system. 

STUTTERING IS HERTOGENOUS NOT HOMOGENEOUS

Evidence from Research and Treatment:  Almost every treatment ever applied to groups of people who stutter has had the same result (and this includes behavioral, psychological, surgical, and drug treatments): 

Some get better; 

Some get worse; 

Some don’t change..  

Almost every research study of people who stutter has resulted in conflicting findings when replication was attempted.  That is, one scientist hypothesized an underlying “causal” factor for stuttering, and tested a group of stutterers for that factor, and found the hypothesized difference.  The next scientist attempting to replicate that finding tested another group of stutterers and did not find any significant difference between stutterers and non-stutterers on that factor.  Many hypothesized etiologies and predisposing characteristics underlying stuttering have been rejected because different groups of stutterers do not demonstrate consistent research findings.  With each proposed “cause” or “predisposing factor,” some of the tested stutterers demonstrated the hypothesized response while others did not.  Clearly, the significance of results from each study was dependent on the participants chosen for that study.  

If Stuttering (as we have defined it clinically) is a heterogeneous not a homogeneous disorder, these are exactly the results that would be expected from treatment and research.  We have not found THE cause of stuttering or THE treatment for stuttering because we have considered “stuttering” as a single, unitary disorder.  If we consider stuttering as a symptom and work toward a DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS which defines sub-types of stutterers or different disorders, we could make progress focused on both etiology and treatment.

A start in the right direction has been made by the diagnostic criteria established for differentiating between “Cluttering” and “Stuttering.” But the overwhelming problem remains:  We do not have a DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSTIC paradigm that will allow us to look at sub-groups of those who stutter to learn which treatments are effective for which groups.

I had hoped to find the right tools to approach this differential diagnosis during my career in research and treatment.  As it turned out, I spent most of that career just trying to persuade our profession that “stuttering” is not a unitary disorder, and that differential diagnosis is actually needed, and I did not succeed in establishing a differential diagnosis paradigm.

Treatment Principles Based in the Heterogeneous Assumption:

Or What to do Until We Know What We Are Doing?

You cannot treat all stutterers the same.  

1. Individualized Treatment is essential.  Each client has unique needs; each client will respond differently to methods, techniques, and approaches.

2. Diagnostic treatment is essential; different methods and approaches have to be tested and explored, and those that demonstrate effectiveness used, while those that do not work are modified or discarded.  No two clients can be treated exactly the same.

3. Client input into the treatment process is critical. Each treatment program will be different and individualized to meet the client’s special needs.  The client’s felt needs and preferences are to be evaluated and considered in treatment planning.  Their feedback is valuable and to be greatly valued in the planning and conduct of treatment.  

4. Treatment is a COLLABORATIVE Endeavor. Therapy a special relationship in which the Client and Clinician work together as partners.

KNOWLEGE MAY NOT ALWAYS SET YOU FREE, BUT IT IS ALWAYS EMPOWERING.

DIFFERENCES THAT MAKE A DIFFERENCE

While I can’t tell you how to do a differential diagnosis to determine the cause and best treatment approach for each dysfluent client, I can share some critical guidelines from both research and clinical experience.  I can only hope that one of you may decide to take this work further.  Below I discuss the most critical differential issues first.  I discuss the most critical difference first, and at the end enumerate other differences of interest.

BLOCKS

DOES THE CLIENT EXPERIENCE BLOCKS?

This the most critical differentiation.  Many experts believe that ONLY those who experience “blocks” are actually stuttering, and that without blocks it is not stuttering, but some other form of disfluency.  

Definition of Blocks —  A block is an involuntary, loss of control of the speech production mechanism.  The person who stutterers experiences this loss of control, and reacts to it.  Most of what we call stuttering, in behavioral terms or descriptions, is what the stutterer does to avoid or control his blocks.  The clinician needs to understand as much as possible about the client’s blocks, and how he experiences and responds to them.

Only the stutterer experiences the “block.”  Sometimes an experienced observer  can recognize the blocks and sometimes they can’t.  The best way to verify information about blocks is to carefully question the person experiencing them.

Blocks are the Core of Stuttering — I subscribe to the belief that “real stuttering” as opposed to other forms of dysfluency/disfluency is characterized by blocking.  Whether this is a valid position or not, those who experience blocking constitute the vast majority of the clients we treat for this disorder.

Blocks are Frightening — To lose voluntary control of any bodily function, whether that be urinating, defecating, swallowing, breathing, standing, walking, blinking your eyes, or speaking is a frightening experience.  Loss of volitional control creates a feeling of helplessness and vulnerability, and can lead to panic or a fight/flight biological response.  Chronic, mysterious loss of volitional control of a bodily function destroys self-confidence, creates self-doubt, and fosters a sense of humiliation.  “Why am I different?  Why can’t I control myself?  What is wrong with me? If I can’t control simple things, how can I ever hope to control big, important things?”   Much of the anguish experienced by stutterers can be directly traced to the emotionally debilitating, humiliating feelings of loss of control. The stutterer seeks to avoid blocks and to hide his blocks.  He will try multiple ways to control his blocks. How the stutterer responds to his blocks constitute the behaviors we evaluate when diagnosing the severity of his stuttering.

Stuttering Symptoms and Severity — How the client habitually reacts to blocks determines the specific, observable behavioral symptoms we typically call stuttering.  Those who are successful in avoiding, disguising/hiding, or minimizing/controlling their blocks, are called “Covert Stutterers;” while those who are not successful in these endeavors are called “Overt Stutterers.”  

Our behavioral measures of stuttering severity are based in exactly that — behaviors.  We measure stuttering severity as it relates to what an observer sees and hears.  I would postulate that the severity of stuttering is not a matter of counting behaviors, but of the effects of stuttering on the life of the person who stutterers.  The number and duration of repetitions, prolongations, etc. are not an index of the extent to which life choices, successes, and failures are linked to stuttering.  In this regard, understanding covert stuttering is critically important to understanding overt stuttering.

OVERT vs. COVERT STUTTERING

Unfortunately, most clinicians only see “overt” stutterers, and most stuttering research and most text books on stuttering are devoted almost entirely to”overt” stuttering.  A typical text devotes less that 3 pages to a discussion of  “covert” stuttering.  

As a clinician, only three “covert” stutterers sought my help in over 40 years.  Fortunately, as a researcher, I investigated families with high incidence of stuttering, and in other investigations, interviewed numbers of “cured” or “recovered” stutterers.  In this way, I got to know and learn from “covert” stutterers.  

These experiences led me to conclude that “outgrowing,” ”recovering,” or being “cured” of stuttering are just labels applied to the process of changing an “Overt” stutterer into a “Covert” stutterer.  Indeed I have come to believe that most of what we call successful stuttering therapy is, just transforming an overt stutterer into a covert stutterer.

In this case, you might wonder why any covert stutterers seek help from a speech pathologist?  Well, two came to me for the same reason — they were tired of the efforts they had to exert in order to avoid or hide their stuttering.  They wanted me to help them experience fluency without the constant vigilance that they used to avoid or disguise their stuttering.  These covert stutterers hoped I could help them find natural. effortless fluency.  They wanted to experience easy, normal fluency.  The third covert stutterer wouldn’t come to the clinic for a consultation because he was a politician about to seek a high profile office.  We met over lunch instead.  He hoped I might know how he could improve on the methods he used to disguise/hide his stuttering.  We exchanged information on techniques, and I learned as much as he did.  He was very good, and he won his election.

Unfortunately, I have come to believe that the goal of “effortless fluency” is not achievable for most adult stutterers.  I believe that successful early treatment can enable a stutterer to become a naturally fluent speaker (not a perfectly fluent speaker, because this doesn’t exist).  After adolescence I believe that stutterers can learn to control their overt stuttering (become controlled fluent speakers), but maintaining their fluency requires effort and vigilance.  Their fluency is achieved at a cost, and in the end, the costs must be balanced against the benefits.  The following are some Principles that I believe apply to Good Stuttering Therapy:

Good Therapy gives the stutterer the ability to Control their blocks.

Good Therapy minimizes the effort and vigilance required for Control.

Good Therapy frees the Client to decide how fluent he wants to be.

The Client can choose the cost vs. benefits for the fluency he desires.

WHAT IS FLUENCY?

OR How to Define A Block

Speaking fluently requires fine temporal integration of the following:

1. Cognitive processes — the thoughts/ideas you wish to communicate.

2. Linguistic processes — the words, grammar, phonemes, prosody, etc.

3. Motor Speech processes — respiratory, phonatory, articulatory, etc.

4. Feedbacks — related to all three processes.

These processes are interactive and parallel rather than sequential.

For all stutterers, these systems (cognitive, linguistic, motor speech, and feedback) can and do function in a coordinated way much of the time.  That is, no system is broken.  The only thing necessary for fluency breakdown is a disruption in the timing (temporal coordination) between or within these systems.  

The timing (temporal coordination) can be as fine as 5 -10 milliseconds. 

(Note: the faster the speech, the shorter the margin of timing error).

These systems operate at very different speeds.  That is, the mechanisms required for thinking about what you want to say operate in very different (faster) temporal parameters than the much slower motor systems that control the movements of the speech production system.  Even within a system, rates of processing differ.  For example times required for word retrieval differ from times required for phonemic sequencing.  And in the motor system, the rates and timing for respiration differs greatly from the rates of timing for laryngeal muscle activities, which differ from those for articulatory movements.  Indeed, the relatively slower movements of the tongue body for vowels must be temporally coordinated with the the faster dynamic movements for consonants — all within the articulatory system.

These systems are differentially effected by a variety of environmental factors.. For example air quality, humidity, temperature, noise, light, and other factors exert differential effects on how we think and how we breathe and ultimately how we speak.  Physiological factors such as fatigue and psychological factors like stress will also differentially effect these systems.  The larynx as part of the respiratory system is so markedly affected by the “startle” or “fight/flight” response that expressions like “scared speechless” or “struck dumb” occur in almost all human cultures.

A temporal delay or mistiming in the integration of any of the cognitive, linguistic or motor processes will result in disfluency.  When the temporal error or mistiming occurs within the respiratory, phonatory, articulatory, or motor feedback processes, a “Block" (breakdown in speech motor coordination) occurs..  Since timing (temporal processing) underlies the failures or breakdowns, temporal factors, including rate and pauses will impact frequency and duration of system failures (disfluencies and disfluencies).

It follows then that manipulating the tempo or timing of speech production will increase or decrease the occurrence of blocks (breakdowns in temporal coordination).  Speed speech up and there will be more frequent blocks.  Slow speech down and there will be fewer blocks.  Change the timing of segments in specific ways and blocking can be eliminated.  Every successful technique that I know for controlling stuttering has the effect of lengthening the duration of speech segments, and slowing the rate of segment transitions.  In other words, old Granny was right when she advised the stuttering child to, “slow down.”  Slowing down in very specific ways is an underlying constant in most successful stuttering treatment.

CONSCIOUS CONTROL vs. 

AUTOMATIC PILOT

When flying a modern aircraft, the pilot has varying degrees of control.  He can totally fly the plane, attending to every detail; but this is an inefficient use of his time.  To be more efficient, a pilot can delegate less variable or critical factors to an automatic pilot while he manages a sub-set of more critical flight factors.  Alternatively, a pilot can set the automatic pilot to fly the plane while he checks flight plans, consults his charts, talks with the copilot or navigator, checks on other issues, or just takes a rest.  The pilot analogy can be applied to our speech production.  

We can consciously control every aspect of our speech/language generation system, but this is inefficient, and requires great concentration.  Rather, we “automate” the more predictable programmable aspects of speech/language generation, while concentrating our conscious efforts on higher cognitive functions such as “thinking” and analyzing the reaction of listeners.  For example, we seldom give conscious thought to the pitch of our voices or to the prosodic patterns of statements and questions.  Only under special speaking conditions do we consciously control these omnipresent aspects of our speech production.  

Similarly, we can consciously control our articulation, carefully producing and enunciating each sound and syllable.  When speaking to a child or a hearing impaired or elderly person, we often make these adjustments.  However, under ordinary circumstances, we don’t pay active attention to our pronunciation or articulation.  Typically we put speech production in AUTOMATIC MODE while devoting conscious mental efforts to choosing the thoughts or words important to our communication.  

IN STUTTERING, THE AUTOMATIC MODE IS EFFECTED, not the Conscious Control Mode.  When a speaker shifts into a conscious control mode of speech, in which he monitors lower level aspects of speech production (such as pitch, segment duration, articulation accuracy and timing, prosody, accent, dialect, etc.) stuttering ceases.  All of the known fluency evoking techniques force the speaker to focus conscious attention on one or more aspects of speech production, moving speech out of automatic mode, and into a conscious control mode.

It should also be noted that a side effect of moving speech into conscious control mode is a decrease in the rate of segment production (that is, under conscious control we increase the duration of each segment and of each syllable).  It follows that every known fluency-evoking technique increases the duration of speech segments, and decreases the rate of segment production (slows speech).  

In summary, we can talk fast (produce very short segments and syllables) when we speak in AUTOMATIC MODE.  When we shift into CONSCIOUS CONTROL MODE, we slow the rate of segment production by increasing the length of each segment.  In AUTOMATIC MODE, we talk faster, and breakdowns in temporal coordination (blocks) occur.  In Conscious Control Mode we talk slower (with longer segments and transitions) and we don’t block.

How do you get a speaker to shift from Automatic Mode into Conscious Control Mode?  You use one of the “fluency-evoking” techniques.  Every known fluency evoking technique from singing to whispering to speaking with an accent or with altered auditory feedback, forces a speaker to shift from “automatic mode” into “conscious control mode.”  Every fluency evoking technique works for as long as it forces the speaker to use “conscious control.”  If a fluency evoking technique is habituated to the point that it can be produced in “automatic mode” it ceases to be effective in preventing blocks.

The Magic of Longer Segments:

Discovering the Transition

There’s Slowing Down & There is Slloowwing Doown — 

One of the longest lines of research in stuttering focuses on the “loci” of stuttering blocks.  Martin Adams made a major contribution to our understanding of stuttering when he realized that the repeated sound or the prolonged sound, as in “KakakaKaty” or  “Mmmmmmoon” is not the location of the block.  The stutterer is saying a perfectly find /k/” and a perfectly acceptable /m/.  The block is occurring at the transition between the consonant and the vowel.  The stutterer can’t get from the consonant (which he repeats or prolongs) into the vowel.  The block is at the transition. 

The presence of the shwa (or neutral vowel) in stuttering repetitions is further evidence that the repetitions demonstrate a failure in the coordination of the transition between the consonant and the following vowel.  Blocks can also occur with the initiation of a Vowel sound at the beginning of a word, although this is far less common than between an initial consonant and a vowel.  In this case the “transition” is the onset of phonation (that is, transitioning from silence into phonation).  

Blocks never occur on the closing transitions in a CVC or VC.  That is no one ever stutters, “catttt” or “mannnnn.”  This type of disfluency occurs only when we deliberately induce fluency breakdown by placing normal speakers under delayed auditory feedback (DAF).

Every fluency evoking condition studied to-date causes speakers to increase the duration of the segments of speech.  Vowels which are longer and more elastic temporally have the greatest absolute lengthening, but consonants are also lengthened proportionally, and the transitions between segments are longer.  When transitions are longer, blocks are far less likely to occur.  It is tempting to hypothesize that the extended segment and transition durations, provide extra time for the system to coordinate the elements and smoothly execute the movements. 

THE SECRET OF GETTING A STUTTERER TO SPEAK FLUENTLY; OR TO ELIMINATING BLOCKS (which is the same thing) IS TO GET THE STUTTERER TO LENGTHEN TRANSITIONS INTO VOWELS (typically in CV; but occasionally in V; or VC word initial syllables).

THE EASIEST WAY TO ACCOMPLISH THE LENGTHENING OF SPEECH TRANSITIONS IS TO MOVE SPEECH FROM AUTOMATIC MODE TO CONSCIOUS CONTROL MODE.

THE FLUENCY EVOKING TECHNIQUES ARE A PRIMARY MEANS FOR SHIFTING A SPEAKER FROM AUTOMATIC MODE INTO CONSCIOUS CONTROL MODE.

THE “SPEAK MORE FLUENTLY” vs. “THE STUTTER MORE FLUENTLY” APPROACHES:

SEVERITY, AWARENESS, and ANTICIPATION IN DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS

Stutterers differ greatly on these variables (Severity, Awareness, and Anticipation), and exploring these variables is critical to formulating a treatment approach.  I don’t use the traditional “stutter more fluently” approaches, but with stutterers who only block occasionally, and/or who are highly aware and can anticipate their blocks, I use a “Block Management Approach” in which the client uses his speech techniques only when he anticipates or recognizes the approaching block.  For Clients who have frequent blocks, we modify their entire speaking pattern in order to manage the blocks effectively.  THIS IS AN EFFICIENCY APPROACH, which aims to allow the Client to use the least effort to achieve the greatest improvement.  Some Clients who being using a total speech modification approach, may eventually be able to move to a block modification approach.  This is in response to the major Problem in using any technique that shifts speech into Conscious Control Mode.

PROBLEM

PEOPLE DON’T LIKE TO SPEAK IN CONSCIOUS CONTROL MODE.  Conscious Control mode requires more mental energy; reduces the resources available for other parallel mental activities.  Speech under Conscious Control lacks the spontaneous, naturalness, that is characteristic of Automatic Speech.  

We can learn more about speaking in conscious control mode from other speakers who employ this mode.  Principle among these are “old-time” radio/TV announcers, stage actors, and most recently performers of audio books. .  These professions use conscious control of their voice and speech to achieve specific objectives.  In almost every case these professionals are aware of techniques they use to achieve specific desired effects.  They are also aware of the effort (mental and physical) and self discipline required to speak in control mode.  They talk of turning their professional voices on and off; and of speaking naturally vs. performing.  In other words, they are very aware of turning the Control on and off.

THE VICIOUS CIRCLE OF CONSCIOUS CONTROL TECHNIQUES IN STUTTERING:

1.  A new unpracticed technique requires the greatest conscious effort, and produces the least natural sounding speech.

2. With lots of practice the speaker can habituate the new speech pattern, and reduce the effort and increase the naturalness of the speech

3. BUT, If the technique becomes completely habituated, it will no longer require conscious control; it will become automatic, and stuttering and blocking may return. 

Note that in #3, I used the word MAY.  It seems that some people who stutter can habituate their new speaking pattern, and will continue to produce fluent speech without excessive blocking.  For others, habituation of a pattern means a loss of its fluency-evoking potency and a return to stuttering.  This area is worthy of research, but it will not be easy work. 

DIAGNOSIS OF OTHER SPEECH AND/OR LANGUAGE PROBLEMS:

Stuttering Plus vs. Stuttering Only

In my clinical experience, stuttering that occurs in the context of other speech and language problems differs from stuttering which is the only speech or language problem exhibited by the Client.  Both Stuttering Plus and Stuttering Only can occur in families (possibly genetic).  However, with very few exceptions Stuttering Plus occurs in families where there are many individuals with speech and language problems (some of whom stutter)’ While Stuttering Only occurs in families with primarily normal speech and language development and function (except for stuttering).  That is, why client’s pattern reflects the familial pattern.  

In my experience, Clients with Stuttering Plus frequently also clutter, or have a history of childhood cluttering.  Stuttering Plus requires broader intervention strategies than simply a focus on fluency.  If you have Stuttering Plus without blocking, do careful language testing, consider word-finding and grammatical formulation difficulties as contributing to the disfluency.  Place emphasis on using 

pauses and time to formulate utterances before initiating.  Treat articulation and pronunciation difficulties.  If you have Stuttering Plus with Blocking use combined approaches, seeking first to change the factors that most distress the client.

 OTHER CRITICAL DIFFERENCES IN DIAGNOSIS

Allergy/Asthma as A Factor

When stuttering occurs in the context of allergies and/or asthma, medical intervention can be a remarkable assist in controlling blocks.  Typically, treatment of the Asthma/Allergies alone will not improve the stuttering, but treatment by a good allergist combined with behavioral treatment are powerful.  You should be aware that there is a relatively rare form of asthma, which effects the laryngeal system (called laryngeal asthma) which is often undiagnosed.

Response to Alcohol As A Variable 

As with m most drugs, alcohol has a variable, but predictable effect on stuttering (some get better; some get worse; some don’t change).  I find response to a couple of drinks to be a clue as to whether “social” interactions problems OR “motor speech control” problems are major variables.  If social fears are critical, then stuttering tends to improve with a drink or two.  If motor speech control is a contributing factor, speech tends to get worse with a drink or two

Good General Motor Control vs. Poor Motor Control

In a similar way, general motor control (both large and small muscle) dexterity can be a differential diagnostic window on speech motor control.  Some stutterers are sensational (or better than average) athletes.  Others are highly skilled musicians or artists.  Look at general motor control for clues into speech motor control issues.